MCAT Topics List: What Subjects are on the MCAT?

Translational Motion (PHY)

• Units and dimensions
• Vectors, components
• Vector addition
• Speed, velocity (average and instantaneous)
• Acceleration

Force (PHY)

• Newton's First Law, inertia
• Newton's Second Law (F = ma)
• Newton's Third Law, forces equal and opposite
• Friction, static and kinetic
• Center of mass

Equilibrium (PHY)

• Vector analysis of forces acting on a point object
• Torques, lever arms

Work (PHY)

• Work done by a constant force: W = Fd cosθ
• Mechanical advantage
• Work Kinetic Energy Theorem
• Conservative forces

Energy of Point Object Systems (PHY)

• Kinetic Energy: KE = ½ mv²; units
• Potential Energy
  • PE = mgh (gravitational, local)
  • PE = ½ kx² (spring)
• Conservation of energy
• Power, units

Periodic Motion (PHY)

• Amplitude, frequency, phase
• Transverse and longitudinal waves: wavelength and propagation speed

Fluids (PHY)

• Density, specific gravity
• Buoyancy, Archimedes' Principle
• Hydrostatic pressure
  • Pascal's Law
  • Hydrostatic pressure; P = ρgh (pressure vs. depth)
• Viscosity: Poiseuille Flow
• Continuity equation (A•v = constant)
• Concept of turbulence at high velocities
• Surface tension
• Bernoulli's equation
• Venturi effect, pitot tube

Circulatory System

• Arterial and venous systems; pressure and flow characteristics

Gas Phase (CHM, PHY)

• Absolute temperature, (K) Kelvin Scale
• Pressure, simple mercury barometer
• Molar volume at 0 °C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol
• Ideal gas
  • Definition
  • Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
  • Boyle's Law: PV = constant
  • Charles' Law: V/T = constant
  • Avogadro's Law: V/n = constant
• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
  • Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressure (PHY)
  • Boltzmann's Constant (PHY)
• Deviation of real gas behavior from Ideal Gas Law
  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative (Van der Waals' Equation)
• Partial pressure, mole fraction
• Dalton's Law relating partial pressure to composition

Electrostatics (PHY)

• Charge, conductors, charge conservation
• Insulators
• Coulomb's Law
• Electric field E
  • Field lines
  • Field due to charge distribution
• Electrostatic energy, electric potential at a point in space

Circuit Elements (PHY)

• Current I = ΔQ/Δt, sign conventions, units
• Electromotive force, voltage
• Resistance
  • Ohm's Law: I = V/R
  • Resistors in series
  • Resistors in parallel
  • Resistivity: ρ = R•A / L
• Capacitance
  • Parallel plate capacitor
  • Energy of charged capacitor
  • Capacitors in series
  • Capacitors in parallel
  • Dielectrics
• Conductivity
  • Metallic
  • Electrolytic
• Meters

Magnetism (PHY)

• Definition of magnetic field B
• Motion of charged particles in magnetic fields; Lorentz force

Sound (PHY)

• Production of sound
• Relative speed of sound in solids, liquids, and gases
• Intensity of sound, decibel units, log scale
• Attenuation (Damping)
• Doppler Effect: moving sound source or observer, reflection of sound from a moving object
• Pitch
• Resonance in pipes and strings
• Ultrasound
• Shock waves

Light, Electromagnetic Radiation (PHY)

• Concept of Interference; Young Double-slit Experiment
• Thin films, diffraction grating, single-slit diffraction
• Other diffraction phenomena, X-ray diffraction
• Polarization of light: linear and circular
• Properties of electromagnetic radiation
  • Velocity equals constant c, in vacuo
  • Electromagnetic radiation consists of perpendicularly oscillating electric and
• magnetic fields; direction of propagation is perpendicular to both
• Classification of electromagnetic spectrum, photon energy E = hf
• Visual spectrum, color

Geometrical Optics (PHY)

• Reflection from plane surface: angle of incidence equals angle of reflection
• Refraction, refractive index n; Snell's law: n1 sin θ₁ = n₂ sin θ₂
• Dispersion, change of index of refraction with wavelength
• Conditions for total internal reflection
• Spherical mirrors
  • Center of curvature
  • Focal length
  • Real and virtual images
• Thin lenses
  • Converging and diverging lenses
  • Use of formula 1/p + 1/q = 1/f, with sign conventions
  • Lens strength, diopters
• Combination of lenses
• Lens aberration
• Optical Instruments, including the human eye

Atomic Nucleus (PHY, CHM)

• Atomic number, atomic weight
• Neutrons, protons, isotopes
• Nuclear forces, binding energy
• Radioactive decay
  • α, β, γ decay
  • Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots
• Mass spectrometer

Electronic Structure (PHY, CHM)

• Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principal quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital (GC)
• Ground state, excited states
• Absorption and emission line spectra
• Use of Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Paramagnetism and diamagnetism
• Conventional notation for electronic structure (CHM)
• Bohr atom
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Effective nuclear charge (CHM)
• Photoelectric effect

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions – Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics (CHM, PHY)

• Thermodynamic system – state function
• Zeroth Law – concept of temperature
• First Law - conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes
• PV diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve (PHY)
• Second Law – concept of entropy
  • Entropy as a measure of "disorder"
  • Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states
• Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat
• Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation (PHY)
• Endothermic/exothermic reactions (CHM)
  • o Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation
  • o Hess' Law of Heat Summation
• Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (CHM)
• Free energy: G (CHM)
• Spontaneous reactions and ΔG° (CHM)
• Coefficient of expansion (PHY)
• Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization
• Phase diagram: pressure and temperature

Gas Phase (CHM, PHY)

• Absolute temperature, (K) Kelvin Scale
• Pressure, simple mercury barometer
• Molar volume at 0 °C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol
• Ideal gas
  • Definition
  • Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
  • Boyle's Law: PV = constant
  • Charles' Law: V/T = constant
  • Avogadro's Law: V/n = constant
• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
  • Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressure (PHY)
  • Boltzmann's Constant (PHY)
• Deviation of real gas behavior from Ideal Gas Law
  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative (Van der Waals' Equation)
• Partial pressure, mole fraction
• Dalton's Law relating partial pressure to composition

Electrochemistry (CHM)

• Electrolytic cell
  • Electrolysis
  • Anode, cathode
  • Electrolyte
  • Faraday's Law relating amount of elements deposited (or gas liberated) at an electrode to current
  • Electron flow; oxidation, and reduction at the electrodes Galvanic or Voltaic cells
  • Half-reactions
  • Reduction potentials; cell potential
  • Direction of electron flow
• Concentration cell
• Batteries
  • Electromotive force, Voltage
  • Lead-storage batteries
  • Nickel-cadmium batteries

Atomic Nucleus (PHY, CHM)

• Atomic number, atomic weight
• Neutrons, protons, isotopes
• Nuclear forces, binding energy
• Radioactive decay
  • α, β, γ decay
  • Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots
• Mass spectrometer

Electronic Structure (PHY, CHM)

• Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principal quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital (GC)
• Ground state, excited states
• Absorption and emission line spectra
• Use of Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Paramagnetism and diamagnetism
• Conventional notation for electronic structure (CHM)
• Bohr atom
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Effective nuclear charge (CHM)
• Photoelectric effect

The Periodic Table - Classification of Elements into Groups by Electronic Structure (CHM)

• Alkali metals
• Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics
• Halogens: their chemical characteristics
• Noble gases: their physical and chemical characteristics
• Transition metals
• Representative elements
• Metals and non-metals
• Oxygen group

The Periodic Table - Variations of Chemical Properties with Group and Row (CHM)

• Valence electrons
• First and second ionization energy
  • Definition
  • Prediction from electronic structure for elements in different groups or rows Electron affinity
  • Definition
  • Variation with group and row
• Electronegativity
  • Definition
  • Comparative values for some representative elements and important groups
• Electron shells and the sizes of atoms
• Electron shells and the sizes of ions

Stoichiometry (CHM)

• Molecular weight
• Empirical versus molecular formula
• Metric units commonly used in the context of chemistry
• Description of composition by percent mass
• Mole concept, Avogadro's number N_A
• Definition of density
• Oxidation number
  • Common oxidizing and reducing agents
  • Disproportionation reactions
• Description of reactions by chemical equations
  • Conventions for writing chemical equations
  • Balancing equations, including redox equations
  • Limiting reactants
  • Theoretical yields

Acid/Base Equilibria (CHM, BCM)

• Brønsted–Lowry definition of acid, base
• Ionization of water
  • Kw, its approximate value (K_w = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C, 1 atm)
  • Definition of pH: pH of pure water
• Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH₄⁺ and NH₃)
• Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
• Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
  • Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
  • Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
  • Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
• Equilibrium constants K_a and K_b: pK_a, pK_b
• Buffers
  • Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
  • Influence on titration curves

Ions in Solutions (CHM, BCM)

• Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH₄⁺ ammonium, PO₄³⁻ phosphate, SO₄²⁻ sulfate)
• Hydration, the hydronium ion

Solubility (CHM)

• Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
• Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression K_sp
• Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
  • Complex ion formation
  • Complex ions and solubility
  • Solubility and pH

Titration (CHM)

• Indicators
• Neutralization
• Interpretation of the titration curves
• Redox titration

Covalent Bond (CHM)

• Lewis Electron Dot formulas
  • Resonance structures
  • Formal charge
  • Lewis acids and bases
• Partial ionic character
  • Role of electronegativity in determining charge distribution
  • Dipole Moment
  • and π bonds
  • Hybrid orbitals: sp³, sp², sp and respective geometries
  • Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of molecules (e.g., NH₃, H₂O, CO₂)
  • Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Cl
  • Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules
• Multiple bonding
  • o Effect on bond length and bond energies
  • o Rigidity in molecular structure
• Stereochemistry of covalently bonded molecules (ORG)
  • Isomers
    • Structural isomers
    • Stereoisomers (e.g., diastereomers, enantiomers, cis/trans isomers)
    • Conformational isomers
  • Polarization of light, specific rotation
  • Absolute and relative configuration
    • Conventions for writing R and S forms
    • Conventions for writing E and Z forms

Liquid Phase - Intermolecular Forces (CHM)

• Hydrogen bonding
• Dipole Interactions
• Van der Waals' Forces (London dispersion forces)

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions – Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics (CHM, PHY)

• Thermodynamic system – state function
• Zeroth Law – concept of temperature
• First Law - conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes
• PV diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve (PHY)
• Second Law – concept of entropy
  • Entropy as a measure of "disorder"
  • Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states
• Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat
• Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation (PHY)
• Endothermic/exothermic reactions (CHM)
  • Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation
  • Hess' Law of Heat Summation
• Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (CHM)
• Free energy: G (CHM)
• Spontaneous reactions and ΔG° (CHM)
• Coefficient of expansion (PHY)
• Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization
• Phase diagram: pressure and temperature

Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions - Kinetics and Equilibrium (CHM)

• Reaction rate
• Dependence of reaction rate on concentration of reactants
  • Rate law, rate constant
  • Reaction order
• Rate-determining step
• Dependence of reaction rate upon temperature
  • Activation energy
    • Activated complex or transition state
    • Interpretation of energy profiles showing energies of reactants, products, activation energy, and ΔH for the reaction
  • Use of the Arrhenius Equation
• Kinetic control versus thermodynamic control of a reaction
• Catalysts
• Equilibrium in reversible chemical reactions
  • Law of Mass Action
  • Equilibrium Constant
  • Application of Le Châtelier's Principle
• Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°

Protein Structure (BIO, BCM, CHM)

• Structure
  • 1° structure of proteins
  • 2° structure of proteins
  • 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
  • 4° structure of proteins (BIO, BCM)
• Conformational stability
  • Denaturing and folding
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy) (BCM)
• Separation techniques
  • Isoelectric point
  • Electrophoresis

Principles of Bioenergetics (BCM, CHM)

• Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
  • Free energy/Keq
    • Equilibrium constant
    • Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°
  • Concentration
    • Le Châtelier's Principle
  • Endothermic/exothermic reactions
  • Free energy: G
  • Spontaneous reactions and ΔG°
• Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP
  • ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0
  • ATP group transfers
• Biological oxidation-reduction
  • Half-reactions
  • Soluble electron carriers
  • Flavoproteins

Electrochemistry (CHM)

• Concentration cell: direction of electron flow, Nernst equation

Molecular Structure and Absorption Spectra (ORG)

• Infrared region
  • Intramolecular vibrations and rotations
  • Recognizing common characteristic group absorptions, fingerprint region
• Visible region (CHM)
  • Absorption in visible region gives complementary color (e.g., carotene)
  • Effect of structural changes on absorption (e.g., indicators)
• Ultraviolet region
  • π-Electron and non-bonding electron transitions
  • Conjugated systems
• NMR spectroscopy
  • Protons in a magnetic field; equivalent protons
  • Spin-spin splitting

Separations and Purifications (ORG, BCM)

• Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents
• Distillation
• Chromatography
  • Basic principles involved in separation process
    • Column chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography
    • High pressure liquid chromatography
  • Paper chromatography
  • Thin-layer chromatography
• Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BCM)
  • Electrophoresis
  • Quantitative analysis
  • Chromatography
    • Size-exclusion
    • Ion-exchange
    • Affinity
• Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (ORG)

Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (ORG, BCM)

• Amino acids: description
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Dipolar ions
  • Classification
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
  • Synthesis of α-amino acids (ORG)
    • Strecker Synthesis
    • Gabriel Synthesis
• Peptides and proteins: reactions
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis (BCM)
• General Principles
  • Primary structure of proteins
  • Secondary structure of proteins
  • Tertiary structure of proteins
  • Isoelectric point

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description, Types
  • Storage
    • Triacyl glycerols
    • Free fatty acids: saponification
  • Structural
    • Phospholipids and phosphatids
    • Sphingolipids (BCM)
    • Waxes
  • Signals/cofactors
    • Fat-soluble vitamins
    • Steroids
    • Prostaglandins (BCM)

Aldehydes and Ketones (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties
• Important reactions
  • Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond
    • Acetal, hemiacetal
    • Imine, enamine
    • Hydride reagents
    • Cyanohydrin
  • Oxidation of aldehydes
  • Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry
    • Keto-enol tautomerism (α-racemization)
    • Aldol condensation, retro-aldol
    • Kinetic versus thermodynamic enolate
• General principles
  • Effect of substituents on reactivity of C=O; steric hindrance
  • Acidity of α-H; carbanions

Alcohols (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties (acidity, hydrogen bonding)
• Important reactions
  • Oxidation
  • Substitution reactions: S_N1 or S_N2
  • Protection of alcohols
  • Preparation of mesylates and tosylates

Carboxylic Acids (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties
• Important reactions
  • Carboxyl group reactions
    • Amides (and lactam), esters (and lactone), anhydride formation
    • Reduction
    • Decarboxylation
  • Reactions at 2-position, substitution

Acid Derivatives (Anhydrides, Amides, Esters) (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties
• Important reactions
  • Nucleophilic substitution
  • Transesterification
  • Hydrolysis of amides
• General principles
  • Relative reactivity of acid derivatives
  • Steric effects
  • Electronic effects
  • Strain (e.g., β-lactams)

Phenols (ORG, BCM)

• Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2^e− redox centers

Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (ORG, BCM)

• Biological aromatic heterocycles

Amino Acids (BCM, ORG)

• Description:
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Amino acids as dipolar ions
  • Classifications
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
• Reactions:
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis

Carbohydrates (BCM, ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature and classification, common names
  • Absolute configuration
  • Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
  • Epimers and anomers
• Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description; structure
  • Steroids
  • Terpenes and terpenoids

For the detailed list of topics in the MCAT, click on the relevant section below.

• Section 1: Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
• Section 2: MCAT CARS
• Section 3: Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
• Section 4: Psychological, Social and Biological Foundations of Behavior

Acid/Base Equilibria (CHM, BCM)

• Brønsted–Lowry definition of acid, base
• Ionization of water
  • K_w, its approximate value (K_w = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C, 1 atm)
  • Definition of pH: pH of pure water
• Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH₄⁺ and NH₃)
• Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
• Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
  • Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
  • Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
  • Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
• Equilibrium constants K_a and K_b: pK_a, pK_b
• Buffers
• Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
• Influence on titration curves

Ions in Solutions (CHM, BCM)

• Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH₄⁺ ammonium, PO₄³⁻ phosphate, SO₄²⁻ sulfate)
• Hydration, the hydronium ion

Solubility (CHM)

• Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
• Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression K_sp
• Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
  • Complex ion formation
  • Complex ions and solubility
  • Solubility and pH

Separations and Purifications (ORG, BCM)

• Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents
• Distillation
• Chromatography:
  • Basic principles involved in separation process
    • Column chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography
    • High pressure liquid chromatography
  • Paper chromatography
  • Thin-layer chromatography
• Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BCM)
  • Electrophoresis
  • Quantitative analysis
  • Chromatography
    • Size-exclusion
    • Ion-exchange
    • Affinity
• Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (ORG)

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BCM, BIO)

• Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
  • Sugar phosphate backbone
  • Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix
• Chemistry (BCM)
• Other functions (BCM)

The Three-Dimensional Protein Structure (BCM)

• Conformational stability
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy)
• Quaternary structure
• Denaturing and Folding

Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (ORG, BCM)

• Amino acids: description
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Dipolar ions
  • Classification
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
  • Synthesis of α-amino acids (ORG)
    • Strecker Synthesis
    • Gabriel Synthesis
• Peptides and proteins: reactions
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis (BCM)
• General Principles
  • Primary structure of proteins
  • Secondary structure of proteins
  • Tertiary structure of proteins
  • Isoelectric point

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description, Types
  • Storage
    • Triacyl glycerols
    • Free fatty acids: saponification
  • Structural
    • Phospholipids and phosphatids
    • Sphingolipids (BCM)
    • Waxes
  • Signals/cofactors
    • Fat-soluble vitamins
    • Steroids
    • Prostaglandins (BCM)

Phenols (ORG, BCM)

• Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2^e− redox centers

Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (ORG, BCM)

• Biological aromatic heterocycles

Enzymes (BCM, BIO)

• Classification by reaction type
• Mechanism
  • Substrates and enzyme specificity
  • Active site model
  • Induced-fit model
  • Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
  • Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
• Inhibition
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric
  • Covalently modified

Amino Acids (BCM, ORG)

• Description:
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Amino acids as dipolar ions
  • Classifications
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
• Reactions:
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis

Protein Structure (BIO, BCM, CHM)

• Structure
  • 1° structure of proteins
  • 2° structure of proteins
  • 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
  • 4° structure of proteins (BIO, BCM)
• Conformational stability
  • Denaturing and folding
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy) (BCM)
• Separation techniques
  • Isoelectric point
  • Electrophoresis

Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BIO, BCM)

• Binding (BCM)
• Immune system
• Motors

Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
• Enzyme classification by reaction type
• Reduction of activation energy
• Substrates and enzyme specificity
• Active Site Model
• Induced-fit Model
• Mechanism of catalysis
  • Cofactors
  • Coenzymes
  • Water-soluble vitamins
• Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity

Control of Enzyme Activity (BIO, BCM)

• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
• Feedback regulation
• Inhibition – types
  • Competitive
  • Non-competitive
  • Mixed (BC)
  • Uncompetitive (BCM)
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric enzymes
  • Covalently-modified enzymes
  • Zymogen

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Description
• Nucleotides and nucleosides
  • Sugar phosphate backbone
  • Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, Watson–Crick model of DNA structure
• Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
• Function in transmission of genetic information
• DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization

Principles of Bioenergetics (BCM, CHM)

• Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
  • Free energy/Keq
    • Equilibrium constant
    • Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°
  • Concentration
    • Le Châtelier's Principle
  • Endothermic/exothermic reactions
  • Free energy: G
  • Spontaneous reactions and ΔG°
• Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP
  • ATP hydrolysis ΔG andlt;andlt; 0
  • ATP group transfers
• Biological oxidation-reduction
  • Half-reactions
  • Soluble electron carriers
  • Flavoproteins

Carbohydrates (BCM, ORG)

• Description
  • o Nomenclature and classification, common names
  • o Absolute configuration
  • o Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
  • o Epimers and anomers
• Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides

Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (BIO, BCM)

• Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products
  • Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism
• Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis)
• Gluconeogenesis
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Principles of Metabolic Regulation (BCM)

• Regulation of metabolic pathways (BIO, BCM)
  • Maintenance of a dynamic steady state
• Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
• Metabolism of glycogen
• Regulation of glycogen synthesis and breakdown
  • Allosteric and hormonal control
• Analysis of metabolic control

Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BCM)

• Acetyl-CoA production (BCM)
• Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products
• Regulation of the cycle
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BCM)

• Description of fatty acids (BCM)
• Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
• Oxidation of fatty acids
  • Saturated fats
  • Unsaturated fats
• Ketone bodies (BCM)
• Anabolism of fats (BIO)
• Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
• Metabolism of proteins (BIO)

Oxidative Phosphorylation (BIO, BCM)

• Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features of the pathway
• Electron transfer in mitochondria
  • NADH, NADPH
  • Flavoproteins
  • Cytochromes
• ATP synthase, chemiosmotic coupling
  • Proton motive force
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
• Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation
• Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress (BCM)

Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Metabolism (BCM)

• Higher level integration of hormone structure and function
• Tissue specific metabolism
• Hormonal regulation of fuel metabolism
• Obesity and regulation of body mass

Plasma Membrane (BIO, BCM)

• General function in cell containment
• Composition of membranes
  • Lipid components (BIO, BCM, ORG)
    • Phospholipids (and phosphatids)
    • Steroids
    • Waxes
  • Protein components
  • Fluid mosaic model
• Membrane dynamics
• Solute transport across membranes
  • Thermodynamic considerations
  • Osmosis
    • Colligative properties; osmotic pressure (CHM)
  • Passive transport
  • Active transport
    • Sodium/potassium pump
• Membrane channels
• Membrane potential
• Membrane receptors
• Exocytosis and endocytosis
• Intercellular junctions (BIO)
  • Gap junctions
  • Tight junctions
  • Desmosomes

Biosignaling (BCM)

• Oncogenes, apoptosis

Biosignaling (BCM)

• Gated ion channels
  • Voltage gated
  • Ligand gated
• Receptor enzymes
• G protein-coupled receptors

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description; structure
  • Steroids
  • Terpenes and terpenoids

Circulatory System (BIO)

• Arterial and venous systems; pressure and flow characteristics

Specialized Cell - Nerve Cell (BIO)

• Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
• Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BCM, BIO)

• Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
  • Sugar phosphate backbone
  • Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix
• Chemistry (BCM)
• Other functions (BCM)

Enzymes (BCM, BIO)

• Classification by reaction type
• Mechanism
  • Substrates and enzyme specificity
  • Active site model
  • Induced-fit model
  • Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
  • Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
• Inhibition
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric
  • Covalently modified

Protein Structure (BIO, BCM, CHM)

• Structure
  • 1° structure of proteins
  • 2° structure of proteins
  • 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
  • 4° structure of proteins (BIO, BCM)
• Conformational stability
  • Denaturing and folding
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy) (BCM)
• Separation techniques
  • Isoelectric point
  • Electrophoresis

Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BIO, BCM)

• Binding (BCM)
• Immune system
• Motors

Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
• Enzyme classification by reaction type
• Reduction of activation energy
• Substrates and enzyme specificity
• Active Site Model
• Induced-fit Model
• Mechanism of catalysis
  • Cofactors
  • Coenzymes
  • Water-soluble vitamins
• Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity

Control of Enzyme Activity (BIO, BCM)

• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
• Feedback regulation
• Inhibition – types
  • Competitive
  • Non-competitive
  • Mixed (BC)
  • Uncompetitive (BCM)
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric enzymes
  • Covalently-modified enzymes
  • Zymogen

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Description
• Nucleotides and nucleosides
• Sugar phosphate backbone
• Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, Watson–Crick model of DNA structure
• Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
• Function in transmission of genetic information
• DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization

DNA Replication (BIO)

• Mechanism of replication: separation of strands, specific coupling of free nucleic acids
• Semi-conservative nature of replication
• Specific enzymes involved in replication
• Origins of replication, multiple origins in eukaryotes
• Replicating the ends of DNA molecules

Repair of DNA (BIO)

• Repair during replication
• Repair of mutations

Genetic Code (BIO)

• Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → protein
• The triplet code
• Codon–anticodon relationship
• Degenerate code, wobble pairing
• Missense, nonsense codons
• Initiation, termination codons
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transcription (BIO)

• Transfer RNA (tRNA); ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Mechanism of transcription
• mRNA processing in eukaryotes, introns, exons
• Ribozymes, spliceosomes, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs)
• Functional and evolutionary importance of introns

Translation (BIO)

• Roles of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
• Role and structure of ribosomes
• Initiation, termination co-factors
• Post-translational modification of proteins

Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization (BIO)

• Chromosomal proteins
• Single copy vs. repetitive DNA
• Supercoiling
• Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
• Telomeres, centromeres

Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes (BIO)

• Operon Concept, Jacob–Monod Model
• Gene repression in bacteria
• Positive control in bacteria

Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes (BIO)

• Transcriptional regulation
• DNA binding proteins, transcription factors
• Gene amplification and duplication
• Post-transcriptional control, basic concept of splicing (introns, exons)
• Cancer as a failure of normal cellular controls, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes
• Regulation of chromatin structure
• DNA methylation
• Role of non-coding RNAs

Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology (BIO)

• Gene cloning
• Restriction enzymes
• DNA libraries
• Generation of cDNA
• Hybridization
• Expressing cloned genes
• Polymerase chain reaction
• Gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting
• DNA sequencing
• Analyzing gene expression
• Determining gene function
• Stem cells
• Practical applications of DNA technology: medical applications, human gene therapy, pharmaceuticals, forensic evidence, environmental cleanup, agriculture
• Safety and ethics of DNA technology

Evidence that DNA is Genetic Material (BIO)

Mendelian Concepts (BIO)

• Phenotype and genotype
• Gene
• Locus
• Allele: single and multiple
• Homozygosity and heterozygosity
• Wild-type
• Recessiveness
• Complete dominance
• Co-dominance
• Incomplete dominance, leakage, penetrance, expressivity
• Hybridization: viability
• Gene pool

Meiosis and Other Factors Affecting Genetic Variability (BIO)

• Significance of meiosis
• Important differences between meiosis and mitosis
• Segregation of genes
  • Independent assortment
  • Linkage
  • Recombination
    • Single crossovers
    • Double crossovers
    • Synaptonemal complex
    • Tetrad
  • Sex-linked characteristics
  • Very few genes on Y chromosome
  • Sex determination
  • Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
• Mutation
  • General concept of mutation — error in DNA sequence
  • Types of mutations: random, translation error, transcription error, base substitution, inversion, addition, deletion, translocation, mispairing
  • Advantageous vs. deleterious mutation
  • Inborn errors of metabolism
  • Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens
• Genetic drift
• Synapsis or crossing-over mechanism for increasing genetic diversity

Analytic Methods (BIO)

• Hardy–Weinberg Principles
• Testcross (Backcross; concepts of parental, F1, and F2 generations)
• Gene mapping: crossover frequencies
• Biometry: statistical methods

Evolution (BIO)

• Natural selection
  • Fitness concept
  • Selection by differential reproduction
  • Concepts of natural and group selection
  • Evolutionary success as increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation
• Speciation
  • Polymorphism
  • Adaptation and specialization
  • Inbreeding
  • Outbreeding
  • Bottlenecks
• Evolutionary time as measured by gradual random changes in genome

Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (BIO, BCM)

• Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products
  • Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism
• Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis)
• Gluconeogenesis
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BCM)

• Acetyl-CoA production
• Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products
• Regulation of the cycle
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BCM)

• Description of fatty acids (BCM)
• Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
• Oxidation of fatty acids
  • Saturated fats
  • Unsaturated fats
• Ketone bodies (BCM)
• Anabolism of fats (BIO)
• Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
• Metabolism of proteins (BIO)

Oxidative Phosphorylation (BIO, BCM)

• Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features of the pathway
• Electron transfer in mitochondria
  • NADH, NADPH
  • Flavoproteins
  • Cytochromes
• ATP synthase, chemiosmotic coupling
  • Proton motive force
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
• Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation
• Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress (BCM)

Plasma Membrane (BIO, BCM)

• General function in cell containment
• Composition of membranes
  • Lipid components (BIO, BCM, ORG)
    • Phospholipids (and phosphatids)
    • Steroids
    • Waxes
  • Protein components
  • Fluid mosaic model
• Membrane dynamics
• Solute transport across membranes
  • Thermodynamic considerations
  • Osmosis
    • Colligative properties; osmotic pressure (CHM)
  • Passive transport
  • Active transport
    • Sodium/potassium pump
• Membrane channels
• Membrane potential
• Membrane receptors
• Exocytosis and endocytosis
• Intercellular junctions (BIO)
  • Gap junctions
  • Tight junctions
  • Desmosomes

Membrane-Bound Organelles and Defining Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Defining characteristics of eukaryotic cells: membrane bound nucleus, presence of organelles, mitotic division Nucleus
  • Compartmentalization, storage of genetic information
  • Nucleolus: location and function
  • Nuclear envelope, nuclear pores
• Mitochondria
  • Site of ATP production
  • Inner and outer membrane structure (BIO, BCM)
  • Self-replication
• Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
  • Rough and smooth components
  • Rough endoplasmic reticulum site of ribosomes
  • Double membrane structure
  • Role in membrane biosynthesis
  • Role in biosynthesis of secreted proteins
• Golgi apparatus: general structure and role in packaging and secretion
• Peroxisomes: organelles that collect peroxides

Cytoskeleton (BIO)

• General function in cell support and movement
• Microfilaments: composition and role in cleavage and contractility
• Microtubules: composition and role in support and transport
• Intermediate filaments, role in support
• Composition and function of cilia and flagella
• Centrioles, microtubule organizing centers

Tissues Formed From Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Epithelial cells
• Connective tissue cells

Cell Theory (BIO)

• History and development
• Impact on biology

Classification and Structure of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Prokaryotic domains
  • Archaea
  • Bacteria
• Major classifications of bacteria by shape
  • Bacilli (rod-shaped)
  • Spirilli (spiral-shaped)
  • Cocci (spherical)
• Lack of nuclear membrane and mitotic apparatus
• Lack of typical eukaryotic organelles
• Presence of cell wall in bacteria
• Flagellar propulsion, mechanism

Growth and Physiology of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Reproduction by fission
• High degree of genetic adaptability, acquisition of antibiotic resistance
• Exponential growth
• Existence of anaerobic and aerobic variants
• Parasitic and symbiotic
• Chemotaxis

Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Existence of plasmids, extragenomic DNA
• Transformation: incorporation into bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium
• Conjugation
• Transposons (also present in eukaryotic cells)

Virus Structure (BIO)

• General structural characteristics (nucleic acid and protein, enveloped and nonenveloped)
• Lack organelles and nucleus
• Structural aspects of typical bacteriophage
• Genomic content — RNA or DNA
• Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells

Viral Life Cycle (BIO)

• Self-replicating biological units that must reproduce within specific host cell
• Generalized phage and animal virus life cycles
  • Attachment to host, penetration of cell membrane or cell wall, and entry of viral genetic material
  • Use of host synthetic mechanism to replicate viral components
  • Self-assembly and release of new viral particles
• Transduction: transfer of genetic material by viruses
• Retrovirus life cycle: integration into host DNA, reverse transcriptase, HIV
• Prions and viroids: subviral particles

Mitosis (BIO)

• Mitotic process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase
• Mitotic structures
  • Centrioles, asters, spindles
  • Chromatids, centromeres, kinetochores
  • Nuclear membrane breakdown and reorganization
  • Mechanisms of chromosome movement
• Phases of cell cycle: G0, G1, S, G2, M
• Growth arrest
• Control of cell cycle
• Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer cells

Reproductive System (BIO)

• Gametogenesis by meiosis
• Ovum and sperm
  • Differences in formation
  • Differences in morphology
  • Relative contribution to next generation
• Reproductive sequence: fertilization; implantation; development; birth

Embryogenesis (BIO)

• Stages of early development (order and general features of each)
  • Fertilization
  • Cleavage
  • Blastula formation
  • Gastrulation
  • First cell movements
  • Formation of primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
  • Neurulation
• Major structures arising out of primary germ layers
• Neural crest
• Environment–gene interaction in development

Mechanisms of Development (BIO)

• Cell specialization
  • Determination
  • Differentiation
  • Tissue types
• Cell–cell communication in development
• Cell migration
• Pluripotency: stem cells
• Gene regulation in development
• Programmed cell death
• Existence of regenerative capacity in various species
• Senescence and aging

Nervous System: Structure and Function (BIO)

• Major Functions
  • High level control and integration of body systems
  • Adaptive capability to external influences
• Organization of vertebrate nervous system
• Sensor and effector neurons
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: antagonistic control
• Reflexes
  • Feedback loop, reflex arc
  • Role of spinal cord and supraspinal circuits
• Integration with endocrine system: feedback control

Nerve Cell (BIO)

• Cell body: site of nucleus, organelles
• Dendrites: branched extensions of cell body
• Axon: structure and function
• Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
• Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
• Synapse: site of impulse propagation between cells
• Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules
• Resting potential: electrochemical gradient
• Action potential
  • Threshold, all-or-none
  • Sodium/potassium pump
• Excitatory and inhibitory nerve fibers: summation, frequency of firing
• Glial cells, neuroglia

Endocrine System: Hormones and Their Sources (BIO)

• Function of endocrine system: specific chemical control at cell, tissue, and organ level
• Definitions of endocrine gland, hormone
• Major endocrine glands: names, locations, products
• Major types of hormones
• Neuroendrocrinology ― relation between neurons and hormonal systems

Endocrine System: Mechanisms of Hormone Action (BIO)

• Cellular mechanisms of hormone action
• Transport of hormones: blood supply
• Specificity of hormones: target tissue
• Integration with nervous system: feedback control
• Regulation by second messengers

Respiratory System (BIO)

• General function
  • Gas exchange, thermoregulation
  • Protection against disease: particulate matter
• Structure of lungs and alveoli
• Breathing mechanisms
  • Diaphragm, rib cage, differential pressure
  • Resiliency and surface tension effects
• Thermoregulation: nasal and tracheal capillary beds; evaporation, panting
• Particulate filtration: nasal hairs, mucus/cilia system in lungs
• Alveolar gas exchange
  • Diffusion, differential partial pressure
  • Henry's Law
• pH control
• Regulation by nervous control
  • CO₂ sensitivity

Circulatory System (BIO)

• Functions: circulation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, ions and fluids, removal of metabolic waste
• Role in thermoregulation
• Four-chambered heart: structure and function
• Endothelial cells
• Systolic and diastolic pressure
• Pulmonary and systemic circulation
• Arterial and venous systems (arteries, arterioles, venules, veins)
  • Structural and functional differences
  • Pressure and flow characteristics
• Capillary beds
  • Mechanisms of gas and solute exchange
  • Mechanism of heat exchange
  • Source of peripheral resistance
• Composition of blood
  • Plasma, chemicals, blood cells
  • Erythrocyte production and destruction; spleen, bone marrow
  • Regulation of plasma volume
• Coagulation, clotting mechanisms
• Oxygen transport by blood
  • Hemoglobin, hematocrit
  • Oxygen content
  • Oxygen affinity
• Carbon dioxide transport and level in blood
• Nervous and endocrine control

Lymphatic System (BIO)

• Structure of lymphatic system
• Major functions
  • Equalization of fluid distribution
  • Transport of proteins and large glycerides
  • Production of lymphocytes involved in immune reactions
  • Return of materials to the blood

Immune System (BIO)

• Innate (non-specific) vs. adaptive (specific) immunity
• Adaptive immune system cells
  • T-lymphocytes
  • B-lymphocytes
• Innate immune system cells
  • Macrophages
  • Phagocytes
• Tissues
  • Bone marrow
  • Spleen
  • Thymus
  • Lymph nodes
• Concept of antigen and antibody
• Antigen presentation
• Clonal selection
• Antigen-antibody recognition
• Structure of antibody molecule
• Recognition of self vs. non-self, autoimmune diseases
• Major histocompatibility complex

Digestive System (BIO)

• Ingestion
  • Saliva as lubrication and source of enzymes
  • Ingestion; esophagus, transport function
• Stomach
  • Storage and churning of food
  • Low pH, gastric juice, mucal protection against self-destruction
  • Production of digestive enzymes, site of digestion
  • Structure (gross)
• Liver
  • Structural relationship of liver within gastrointestinal system
  • Production of bile
  • Role in blood glucose regulation, detoxification
• Bile
  • Storage in gall bladder
  • Function
• Pancreas
  • Production of enzymes
  • Transport of enzymes to small intestine
• Small Intestine
  • Absorption of food molecules and water
  • Function and structure of villi
  • Production of enzymes, site of digestion
  • Neutralization of stomach acid
  • Structure (anatomic subdivisions)
• Large Intestine
  • Absorption of water
  • Bacterial flora
  • Structure (gross)
• Rectum: storage and elimination of waste, feces
• Muscular control
  • Peristalsis
• Endocrine control
  • Hormones
  • Target tissues
• Nervous control: the enteric nervous system

Excretory System (BIO)

• Roles in homeostasis
  • Blood pressure
  • Osmoregulation
  • Acid–base balance
  • Removal of soluble nitrogenous waste
• Kidney structure
  • Cortex
  • Medulla
• Nephron structure
  • Glomerulus
  • Bowman's capsule
  • Proximal tubule
  • Loop of Henle
  • Distal tubule
  • Collecting duct
• Formation of urine
  • Glomerular filtration
  • Secretion and reabsorption of solutes
  • Concentration of urine
  • Counter-current multiplier mechanism
• Storage and elimination: ureter, bladder, urethra
• Osmoregulation: capillary reabsorption of H₂O, amino acids, glucose, ions
• Muscular control: sphincter muscle

Reproductive System (BIO)

• Male and female reproductive structures and their functions
  • Gonads
  • Genitalia
  • Differences between male and female structures
• Hormonal control of reproduction
  • Male and female sexual development
  • Female reproductive cycle
  • Pregnancy, parturition, lactation
  • Integration with nervous control

Muscle System (BIO)

• Important functions
  • Support: mobility
  • Peripheral circulatory assistance
  • Thermoregulation (shivering reflex)
• Structure of three basic muscle types: striated, smooth, cardiac
• Muscle structure and control of contraction
  • T-tubule system
  • Contractile apparatus
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Fiber type
  • Contractile velocity of different muscle types
• Regulation of cardiac muscle contraction
• Oxygen debt: fatigue
• Nervous control
  • Motor neurons
  • Neuromuscular junction, motor end plates
  • Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation
  • Voluntary and involuntary muscles

Specialized Cell - Muscle Cell (BIO)

• Structural characteristics of striated, smooth, and cardiac muscle
• Abundant mitochondria in red muscle cells: ATP source
• Organization of contractile elements: actin and myosin filaments, crossbridges, sliding filament model
• Sarcomeres: "I" and "A" bands, "M" and "Z" lines, "H" zone
• Presence of troponin and tropomyosin
• Calcium regulation of contraction

Skeletal System (BIO)

• Functions
  • Structural rigidity and support
  • Calcium storage
  • Physical protection
• Skeletal structure
  • Specialization of bone types, structures
  • Joint structures
  • Endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton
• Bone structure
  • Calcium/protein matrix
  • Cellular composition of bone
• Cartilage: structure and function
• Ligaments, tendons
• Endocrine control

Skin System (BIO)

• Structure
  • Layer differentiation, cell types
  • Relative impermeability to water
• Functions in homeostasis and osmoregulation
• Functions in thermoregulation
  • Hair, erectile musculature
  • Fat layer for insulation
  • Sweat glands, location in dermis
  • Vasoconstriction and vasodilation in surface capillaries
• Physical protection
  • Nails, calluses, hair
  • Protection against abrasion, disease organisms
• Hormonal control: sweating, vasodilation, and vasoconstriction

Sensory Processing (PSY, BIO)

• Sensation
  • o Threshold
  • o Weber's Law (PSY)
  • o Signal detection theory (PSY)
  • o Sensory adaptation
  • o Psychophysics
• Sensory receptors
  • o Sensory pathways
  • o Types of sensory receptor

Vision (PSY, BIO)

• Structure and function of the eye
• Visual processing
• Visual pathways in the brain
• Parallel processing (PSY)
• Feature detection (PSY)

Hearing (PSY, BIO)

• Structure and function of the ear
• Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
• Sensory reception by hair cells

Other Senses (PSY, BIO)

• Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)
• Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)
• Smell
  • Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals
  • Pheromones (BIO)
  • Olfactory pathways in the brain (BIO)
• Kinesthetic sense (PSY)
• Vestibular sense

Biological Bases of Behavior (PSY, BIO)

• The nervous system
  • Neurons (e.g., the reflex arc)
  • Neurotransmitters
  • Structure and function of the peripheral nervous system
  • Structure and function of the central nervous system
    • The brain
      • Forebrain
      • Midbrain
      • Hindbrain
      • Lateralization of cortical functions
      • Methods used in studying the brain
    • The spinal cord
• Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior (PSY)
• Influence of neurotransmitters on behavior (PSY)
• The endocrine system
  • Components of the endocrine system
  • Effects of the endocrine system on behavior
• Behavioral genetics
  • Genes, temperament, and heredity
  • Adaptive value of traits and behaviors
  • Interaction between heredity and environmental influences
• Influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of behaviors
  • Experience and behavior (PSY)
  • Regulatory genes and behavior (BIO)
  • Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations
• Human physiological development (PSY)
  • Prenatal development
  • Motor development
  • Developmental changes in adolescence

Circulatory System (BIO)

• Arterial and venous systems; pressure and flow characteristics

Specialized Cell - Nerve Cell (BIO)

• Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
• Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BCM, BIO)

• Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
  • Sugar phosphate backbone
  • Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix
• Chemistry (BCM)
• Other functions (BCM)

Enzymes (BCM, BIO)

• Classification by reaction type
• Mechanism
  • Substrates and enzyme specificity
  • Active site model
  • Induced-fit model
  • Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
  • Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
• Inhibition
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric
  • Covalently modified

Protein Structure (BIO, BCM, CHM)

• Structure
  • 1° structure of proteins
  • 2° structure of proteins
  • 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
  • 4° structure of proteins (BIO, BCM)
• Conformational stability
  • Denaturing and folding
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy) (BCM)
• Separation techniques
  • Isoelectric point
  • Electrophoresis

Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BIO, BCM)

• Binding (BCM)
• Immune system
• Motors

Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
• Enzyme classification by reaction type
• Reduction of activation energy
• Substrates and enzyme specificity
• Active Site Model
• Induced-fit Model
• Mechanism of catalysis
  • Cofactors
  • Coenzymes
  • Water-soluble vitamins
• Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity

Control of Enzyme Activity (BIO, BCM)

• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
• Feedback regulation
• Inhibition – types
  • Competitive
  • Non-competitive
  • Mixed (BC)
  • Uncompetitive (BCM)
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric enzymes
  • Covalently-modified enzymes
  • Zymogen

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Description
• Nucleotides and nucleosides
• Sugar phosphate backbone
• Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, Watson–Crick model of DNA structure
• Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
• Function in transmission of genetic information
• DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization

DNA Replication (BIO)

• Mechanism of replication: separation of strands, specific coupling of free nucleic acids
• Semi-conservative nature of replication
• Specific enzymes involved in replication
• Origins of replication, multiple origins in eukaryotes
• Replicating the ends of DNA molecules

Repair of DNA (BIO)

• Repair during replication
• Repair of mutations

Genetic Code (BIO)

• Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → protein
• The triplet code
• Codon–anticodon relationship
• Degenerate code, wobble pairing
• Missense, nonsense codons
• Initiation, termination codons
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transcription (BIO)

• Transfer RNA (tRNA); ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Mechanism of transcription
• mRNA processing in eukaryotes, introns, exons
• Ribozymes, spliceosomes, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs)
• Functional and evolutionary importance of introns

Translation (BIO)

• Roles of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
• Role and structure of ribosomes
• Initiation, termination co-factors
• Post-translational modification of proteins

Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization (BIO)

• Chromosomal proteins
• Single copy vs. repetitive DNA
• Supercoiling
• Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
• Telomeres, centromeres

Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes (BIO)

• Operon Concept, Jacob–Monod Model
• Gene repression in bacteria
• Positive control in bacteria

Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes (BIO)

• Transcriptional regulation
• DNA binding proteins, transcription factors
• Gene amplification and duplication
• Post-transcriptional control, basic concept of splicing (introns, exons)
• Cancer as a failure of normal cellular controls, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes
• Regulation of chromatin structure
• DNA methylation
• Role of non-coding RNAs

Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology (BIO)

• Gene cloning
• Restriction enzymes
• DNA libraries
• Generation of cDNA
• Hybridization
• Expressing cloned genes
• Polymerase chain reaction
• Gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting
• DNA sequencing
• Analyzing gene expression
• Determining gene function
• Stem cells
• Practical applications of DNA technology: medical applications, human gene therapy, pharmaceuticals, forensic evidence, environmental cleanup, agriculture
• Safety and ethics of DNA technology

Evidence that DNA is Genetic Material (BIO)

Mendelian Concepts (BIO)

• Phenotype and genotype
• Gene
• Locus
• Allele: single and multiple
• Homozygosity and heterozygosity
• Wild-type
• Recessiveness
• Complete dominance
• Co-dominance
• Incomplete dominance, leakage, penetrance, expressivity
• Hybridization: viability
• Gene pool

Meiosis and Other Factors Affecting Genetic Variability (BIO)

• Significance of meiosis
• Important differences between meiosis and mitosis
• Segregation of genes
  • Independent assortment
  • Linkage
  • Recombination
    • Single crossovers
    • Double crossovers
    • Synaptonemal complex
    • Tetrad
  • Sex-linked characteristics
  • Very few genes on Y chromosome
  • Sex determination
  • Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
• Mutation
  • General concept of mutation — error in DNA sequence
  • Types of mutations: random, translation error, transcription error, base substitution, inversion, addition, deletion, translocation, mispairing
  • Advantageous vs. deleterious mutation
  • Inborn errors of metabolism
  • Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens
• Genetic drift
• Synapsis or crossing-over mechanism for increasing genetic diversity

Analytic Methods (BIO)

• Hardy–Weinberg Principles
• Testcross (Backcross; concepts of parental, F1, and F2 generations)
• Gene mapping: crossover frequencies
• Biometry: statistical methods

Evolution (BIO)

• Natural selection
  • Fitness concept
  • Selection by differential reproduction
  • Concepts of natural and group selection
  • Evolutionary success as increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation
• Speciation
  • Polymorphism
  • Adaptation and specialization
  • Inbreeding
  • Outbreeding
  • Bottlenecks
• Evolutionary time as measured by gradual random changes in genome

Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (BIO, BCM)

• Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products
  • Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism
• Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis)
• Gluconeogenesis
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BCM)

• Acetyl-CoA production
• Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products
• Regulation of the cycle
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BCM)

• Description of fatty acids (BCM)
• Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
• Oxidation of fatty acids
  • Saturated fats
  • Unsaturated fats
• Ketone bodies (BCM)
• Anabolism of fats (BIO)
• Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
• Metabolism of proteins (BIO)

Oxidative Phosphorylation (BIO, BCM)

• Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features of the pathway
• Electron transfer in mitochondria
  • NADH, NADPH
  • Flavoproteins
  • Cytochromes
• ATP synthase, chemiosmotic coupling
  • Proton motive force
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
• Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation
• Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress (BCM)

Plasma Membrane (BIO, BCM)

• General function in cell containment
• Composition of membranes
  • Lipid components (BIO, BCM, ORG)
    • Phospholipids (and phosphatids)
    • Steroids
    • Waxes
  • Protein components
  • Fluid mosaic model
• Membrane dynamics
• Solute transport across membranes
  • Thermodynamic considerations
  • Osmosis
    • Colligative properties; osmotic pressure (CHM)
  • Passive transport
  • Active transport
    • Sodium/potassium pump
• Membrane channels
• Membrane potential
• Membrane receptors
• Exocytosis and endocytosis
• Intercellular junctions (BIO)
  • Gap junctions
  • Tight junctions
  • Desmosomes

Membrane-Bound Organelles and Defining Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Defining characteristics of eukaryotic cells: membrane bound nucleus, presence of organelles, mitotic division Nucleus
  • Compartmentalization, storage of genetic information
  • Nucleolus: location and function
  • Nuclear envelope, nuclear pores
• Mitochondria
  • Site of ATP production
  • Inner and outer membrane structure (BIO, BCM)
  • Self-replication
• Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
  • Rough and smooth components
  • Rough endoplasmic reticulum site of ribosomes
  • Double membrane structure
  • Role in membrane biosynthesis
  • Role in biosynthesis of secreted proteins
• Golgi apparatus: general structure and role in packaging and secretion
• Peroxisomes: organelles that collect peroxides

Cytoskeleton (BIO)

• General function in cell support and movement
• Microfilaments: composition and role in cleavage and contractility
• Microtubules: composition and role in support and transport
• Intermediate filaments, role in support
• Composition and function of cilia and flagella
• Centrioles, microtubule organizing centers

Tissues Formed From Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Epithelial cells
• Connective tissue cells

Cell Theory (BIO)

• History and development
• Impact on biology

Classification and Structure of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Prokaryotic domains
  • Archaea
  • Bacteria
• Major classifications of bacteria by shape
  • Bacilli (rod-shaped)
  • Spirilli (spiral-shaped)
  • Cocci (spherical)
• Lack of nuclear membrane and mitotic apparatus
• Lack of typical eukaryotic organelles
• Presence of cell wall in bacteria
• Flagellar propulsion, mechanism

Growth and Physiology of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Reproduction by fission
• High degree of genetic adaptability, acquisition of antibiotic resistance
• Exponential growth
• Existence of anaerobic and aerobic variants
• Parasitic and symbiotic
• Chemotaxis

Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)

• Existence of plasmids, extragenomic DNA
• Transformation: incorporation into bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium
• Conjugation
• Transposons (also present in eukaryotic cells)

Virus Structure (BIO)

• General structural characteristics (nucleic acid and protein, enveloped and nonenveloped)
• Lack organelles and nucleus
• Structural aspects of typical bacteriophage
• Genomic content — RNA or DNA
• Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells

Viral Life Cycle (BIO)

• Self-replicating biological units that must reproduce within specific host cell
• Generalized phage and animal virus life cycles
  • Attachment to host, penetration of cell membrane or cell wall, and entry of viral genetic material
  • Use of host synthetic mechanism to replicate viral components
  • Self-assembly and release of new viral particles
• Transduction: transfer of genetic material by viruses
• Retrovirus life cycle: integration into host DNA, reverse transcriptase, HIV
• Prions and viroids: subviral particles

Mitosis (BIO)

• Mitotic process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase
• Mitotic structures
  • Centrioles, asters, spindles
  • Chromatids, centromeres, kinetochores
  • Nuclear membrane breakdown and reorganization
  • Mechanisms of chromosome movement
• Phases of cell cycle: G0, G1, S, G2, M
• Growth arrest
• Control of cell cycle
• Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer cells

Reproductive System (BIO)

• Gametogenesis by meiosis
• Ovum and sperm
  • Differences in formation
  • Differences in morphology
  • Relative contribution to next generation
• Reproductive sequence: fertilization; implantation; development; birth

Embryogenesis (BIO)

• Stages of early development (order and general features of each)
  • Fertilization
  • Cleavage
  • Blastula formation
  • Gastrulation
  • First cell movements
  • Formation of primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
  • Neurulation
• Major structures arising out of primary germ layers
• Neural crest
• Environment–gene interaction in development

Mechanisms of Development (BIO)

• Cell specialization
  • Determination
  • Differentiation
  • Tissue types
• Cell–cell communication in development
• Cell migration
• Pluripotency: stem cells
• Gene regulation in development
• Programmed cell death
• Existence of regenerative capacity in various species
• Senescence and aging

Nervous System: Structure and Function (BIO)

• Major Functions
  • High level control and integration of body systems
  • Adaptive capability to external influences
• Organization of vertebrate nervous system
• Sensor and effector neurons
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: antagonistic control
• Reflexes
  • Feedback loop, reflex arc
  • Role of spinal cord and supraspinal circuits
• Integration with endocrine system: feedback control

Nerve Cell (BIO)

• Cell body: site of nucleus, organelles
• Dendrites: branched extensions of cell body
• Axon: structure and function
• Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
• Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
• Synapse: site of impulse propagation between cells
• Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules
• Resting potential: electrochemical gradient
• Action potential
  • Threshold, all-or-none
  • Sodium/potassium pump
• Excitatory and inhibitory nerve fibers: summation, frequency of firing
• Glial cells, neuroglia

Endocrine System: Hormones and Their Sources (BIO)

• Function of endocrine system: specific chemical control at cell, tissue, and organ level
• Definitions of endocrine gland, hormone
• Major endocrine glands: names, locations, products
• Major types of hormones
• Neuroendrocrinology ― relation between neurons and hormonal systems

Endocrine System: Mechanisms of Hormone Action (BIO)

• Cellular mechanisms of hormone action
• Transport of hormones: blood supply
• Specificity of hormones: target tissue
• Integration with nervous system: feedback control
• Regulation by second messengers

Respiratory System (BIO)

• General function
  • Gas exchange, thermoregulation
  • Protection against disease: particulate matter
• Structure of lungs and alveoli
• Breathing mechanisms
  • Diaphragm, rib cage, differential pressure
  • Resiliency and surface tension effects
• Thermoregulation: nasal and tracheal capillary beds; evaporation, panting
• Particulate filtration: nasal hairs, mucus/cilia system in lungs
• Alveolar gas exchange
  • Diffusion, differential partial pressure
  • Henry's Law
• pH control
• Regulation by nervous control
  • CO₂ sensitivity

Circulatory System (BIO)

• Functions: circulation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, ions and fluids, removal of metabolic waste
• Role in thermoregulation
• Four-chambered heart: structure and function
• Endothelial cells
• Systolic and diastolic pressure
• Pulmonary and systemic circulation
• Arterial and venous systems (arteries, arterioles, venules, veins)
  • Structural and functional differences
  • Pressure and flow characteristics
• Capillary beds
  • Mechanisms of gas and solute exchange
  • Mechanism of heat exchange
  • Source of peripheral resistance
• Composition of blood
  • Plasma, chemicals, blood cells
  • Erythrocyte production and destruction; spleen, bone marrow
  • Regulation of plasma volume
• Coagulation, clotting mechanisms
• Oxygen transport by blood
  • Hemoglobin, hematocrit
  • Oxygen content
  • Oxygen affinity
• Carbon dioxide transport and level in blood
• Nervous and endocrine control

Lymphatic System (BIO)

• Structure of lymphatic system
• Major functions
  • Equalization of fluid distribution
  • Transport of proteins and large glycerides
  • Production of lymphocytes involved in immune reactions
  • Return of materials to the blood

Immune System (BIO)

• Innate (non-specific) vs. adaptive (specific) immunity
• Adaptive immune system cells
  • T-lymphocytes
  • B-lymphocytes
• Innate immune system cells
  • Macrophages
  • Phagocytes
• Tissues
  • Bone marrow
  • Spleen
  • Thymus
  • Lymph nodes
• Concept of antigen and antibody
• Antigen presentation
• Clonal selection
• Antigen-antibody recognition
• Structure of antibody molecule
• Recognition of self vs. non-self, autoimmune diseases
• Major histocompatibility complex

Digestive System (BIO)

• Ingestion
  • Saliva as lubrication and source of enzymes
  • Ingestion; esophagus, transport function
• Stomach
  • Storage and churning of food
  • Low pH, gastric juice, mucal protection against self-destruction
  • Production of digestive enzymes, site of digestion
  • Structure (gross)
• Liver
  • Structural relationship of liver within gastrointestinal system
  • Production of bile
  • Role in blood glucose regulation, detoxification
• Bile
  • Storage in gall bladder
  • Function
• Pancreas
  • Production of enzymes
  • Transport of enzymes to small intestine
• Small Intestine
  • Absorption of food molecules and water
  • Function and structure of villi
  • Production of enzymes, site of digestion
  • Neutralization of stomach acid
  • Structure (anatomic subdivisions)
• Large Intestine
  • Absorption of water
  • Bacterial flora
  • Structure (gross)
• Rectum: storage and elimination of waste, feces
• Muscular control
  • Peristalsis
• Endocrine control
  • Hormones
  • Target tissues
• Nervous control: the enteric nervous system

Excretory System (BIO)

• Roles in homeostasis
  • Blood pressure
  • Osmoregulation
  • Acid–base balance
  • Removal of soluble nitrogenous waste
• Kidney structure
  • Cortex
  • Medulla
• Nephron structure
  • Glomerulus
  • Bowman's capsule
  • Proximal tubule
  • Loop of Henle
  • Distal tubule
  • Collecting duct
• Formation of urine
  • Glomerular filtration
  • Secretion and reabsorption of solutes
  • Concentration of urine
  • Counter-current multiplier mechanism
• Storage and elimination: ureter, bladder, urethra
• Osmoregulation: capillary reabsorption of H₂O, amino acids, glucose, ions
• Muscular control: sphincter muscle

Reproductive System (BIO)

• Male and female reproductive structures and their functions
  • Gonads
  • Genitalia
  • Differences between male and female structures
• Hormonal control of reproduction
  • Male and female sexual development
  • Female reproductive cycle
  • Pregnancy, parturition, lactation
  • Integration with nervous control

Muscle System (BIO)

• Important functions
  • Support: mobility
  • Peripheral circulatory assistance
  • Thermoregulation (shivering reflex)
• Structure of three basic muscle types: striated, smooth, cardiac
• Muscle structure and control of contraction
  • T-tubule system
  • Contractile apparatus
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Fiber type
  • Contractile velocity of different muscle types
• Regulation of cardiac muscle contraction
• Oxygen debt: fatigue
• Nervous control
  • Motor neurons
  • Neuromuscular junction, motor end plates
  • Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation
  • Voluntary and involuntary muscles

Specialized Cell - Muscle Cell (BIO)

• Structural characteristics of striated, smooth, and cardiac muscle
• Abundant mitochondria in red muscle cells: ATP source
• Organization of contractile elements: actin and myosin filaments, crossbridges, sliding filament model
• Sarcomeres: "I" and "A" bands, "M" and "Z" lines, "H" zone
• Presence of troponin and tropomyosin
• Calcium regulation of contraction

Skeletal System (BIO)

• Functions
  • Structural rigidity and support
  • Calcium storage
  • Physical protection
• Skeletal structure
  • Specialization of bone types, structures
  • Joint structures
  • Endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton
• Bone structure
  • Calcium/protein matrix
  • Cellular composition of bone
• Cartilage: structure and function
• Ligaments, tendons
• Endocrine control

Skin System (BIO)

• Structure
  • Layer differentiation, cell types
  • Relative impermeability to water
• Functions in homeostasis and osmoregulation
• Functions in thermoregulation
  • Hair, erectile musculature
  • Fat layer for insulation
  • Sweat glands, location in dermis
  • Vasoconstriction and vasodilation in surface capillaries
• Physical protection
  • Nails, calluses, hair
  • Protection against abrasion, disease organisms
• Hormonal control: sweating, vasodilation, and vasoconstriction

Sensory Processing (PSY, BIO)

• Sensation
  • o Threshold
  • o Weber's Law (PSY)
  • o Signal detection theory (PSY)
  • o Sensory adaptation
  • o Psychophysics
• Sensory receptors
  • o Sensory pathways
  • o Types of sensory receptor

Vision (PSY, BIO)

• Structure and function of the eye
• Visual processing
• Visual pathways in the brain
• Parallel processing (PSY)
• Feature detection (PSY)

Hearing (PSY, BIO)

• Structure and function of the ear
• Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
• Sensory reception by hair cells

Other Senses (PSY, BIO)

• Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)
• Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)
• Smell
  • Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals
  • Pheromones (BIO)
  • Olfactory pathways in the brain (BIO)
• Kinesthetic sense (PSY)
• Vestibular sense

Biological Bases of Behavior (PSY, BIO)

• The nervous system
  • Neurons (e.g., the reflex arc)
  • Neurotransmitters
  • Structure and function of the peripheral nervous system
  • Structure and function of the central nervous system
    • The brain
      • Forebrain
      • Midbrain
      • Hindbrain
      • Lateralization of cortical functions
      • Methods used in studying the brain
    • The spinal cord
• Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior (PSY)
• Influence of neurotransmitters on behavior (PSY)
• The endocrine system
  • Components of the endocrine system
  • Effects of the endocrine system on behavior
• Behavioral genetics
  • Genes, temperament, and heredity
  • Adaptive value of traits and behaviors
  • Interaction between heredity and environmental influences
• Influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of behaviors
  • Experience and behavior (PSY)
  • Regulatory genes and behavior (BIO)
  • Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations
• Human physiological development (PSY)
  • Prenatal development
  • Motor development
  • Developmental changes in adolescence

Acid/Base Equilibria (CHM, BCM)

• Brønsted–Lowry definition of acid, base
• Ionization of water
  • K_w, its approximate value (K_w = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C, 1 atm)
  • Definition of pH: pH of pure water
• Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH₄⁺ and NH₃)
• Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
• Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
  • Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
  • Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
  • Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
• Equilibrium constants K_a and K_b: pK_a, pK_b
• Buffers
• Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
• Influence on titration curves

Ions in Solutions (CHM, BCM)

• Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH₄⁺ ammonium, PO₄³⁻ phosphate, SO₄²⁻ sulfate)
• Hydration, the hydronium ion

Solubility (CHM)

• Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
• Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression K_sp
• Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
  • Complex ion formation
  • Complex ions and solubility
  • Solubility and pH

Separations and Purifications (ORG, BCM)

• Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents
• Distillation
• Chromatography:
  • Basic principles involved in separation process
    • Column chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography
    • High pressure liquid chromatography
  • Paper chromatography
  • Thin-layer chromatography
• Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BCM)
  • Electrophoresis
  • Quantitative analysis
  • Chromatography
    • Size-exclusion
    • Ion-exchange
    • Affinity
• Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (ORG)

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BCM, BIO)

• Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
  • Sugar phosphate backbone
  • Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix
• Chemistry (BCM)
• Other functions (BCM)

The Three-Dimensional Protein Structure (BCM)

• Conformational stability
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy)
• Quaternary structure
• Denaturing and Folding

Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (ORG, BCM)

• Amino acids: description
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Dipolar ions
  • Classification
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
  • Synthesis of α-amino acids (ORG)
    • Strecker Synthesis
    • Gabriel Synthesis
• Peptides and proteins: reactions
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis (BCM)
• General Principles
  • Primary structure of proteins
  • Secondary structure of proteins
  • Tertiary structure of proteins
  • Isoelectric point

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description, Types
  • Storage
    • Triacyl glycerols
    • Free fatty acids: saponification
  • Structural
    • Phospholipids and phosphatids
    • Sphingolipids (BCM)
    • Waxes
  • Signals/cofactors
    • Fat-soluble vitamins
    • Steroids
    • Prostaglandins (BCM)

Phenols (ORG, BCM)

• Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2^e− redox centers

Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (ORG, BCM)

• Biological aromatic heterocycles

Enzymes (BCM, BIO)

• Classification by reaction type
• Mechanism
  • Substrates and enzyme specificity
  • Active site model
  • Induced-fit model
  • Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
  • Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
• Inhibition
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric
  • Covalently modified

Amino Acids (BCM, ORG)

• Description:
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Amino acids as dipolar ions
  • Classifications
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
• Reactions:
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis

Protein Structure (BIO, BCM, CHM)

• Structure
  • 1° structure of proteins
  • 2° structure of proteins
  • 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
  • 4° structure of proteins (BIO, BCM)
• Conformational stability
  • Denaturing and folding
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy) (BCM)
• Separation techniques
  • Isoelectric point
  • Electrophoresis

Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BIO, BCM)

• Binding (BCM)
• Immune system
• Motors

Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
• Enzyme classification by reaction type
• Reduction of activation energy
• Substrates and enzyme specificity
• Active Site Model
• Induced-fit Model
• Mechanism of catalysis
  • Cofactors
  • Coenzymes
  • Water-soluble vitamins
• Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity

Control of Enzyme Activity (BIO, BCM)

• Kinetics
  • General (catalysis)
  • Michaelis–Menten
  • Cooperativity
• Feedback regulation
• Inhibition – types
  • Competitive
  • Non-competitive
  • Mixed (BC)
  • Uncompetitive (BCM)
• Regulatory enzymes
  • Allosteric enzymes
  • Covalently-modified enzymes
  • Zymogen

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function (BIO, BCM)

• Description
• Nucleotides and nucleosides
  • Sugar phosphate backbone
  • Pyrimidine, purine residues
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, Watson–Crick model of DNA structure
• Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
• Function in transmission of genetic information
• DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization

Principles of Bioenergetics (BCM, CHM)

• Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
  • Free energy/Keq
    • Equilibrium constant
    • Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°
  • Concentration
    • Le Châtelier's Principle
  • Endothermic/exothermic reactions
  • Free energy: G
  • Spontaneous reactions and ΔG°
• Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP
  • ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0
  • ATP group transfers
• Biological oxidation-reduction
  • Half-reactions
  • Soluble electron carriers
  • Flavoproteins

Carbohydrates (BCM, ORG)

• Description
  • o Nomenclature and classification, common names
  • o Absolute configuration
  • o Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
  • o Epimers and anomers
• Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides

Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (BIO, BCM)

• Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products
  • Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism
• Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis)
• Gluconeogenesis
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Principles of Metabolic Regulation (BCM)

• Regulation of metabolic pathways (BIO, BCM)
  • Maintenance of a dynamic steady state
• Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
• Metabolism of glycogen
• Regulation of glycogen synthesis and breakdown
  • Allosteric and hormonal control
• Analysis of metabolic control

Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BCM)

• Acetyl-CoA production (BCM)
• Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products
• Regulation of the cycle
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes

Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BCM)

• Description of fatty acids (BCM)
• Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
• Oxidation of fatty acids
  • Saturated fats
  • Unsaturated fats
• Ketone bodies (BCM)
• Anabolism of fats (BIO)
• Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
• Metabolism of proteins (BIO)

Oxidative Phosphorylation (BIO, BCM)

• Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features of the pathway
• Electron transfer in mitochondria
  • NADH, NADPH
  • Flavoproteins
  • Cytochromes
• ATP synthase, chemiosmotic coupling
  • Proton motive force
• Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
• Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation
• Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress (BCM)

Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Metabolism (BCM)

• Higher level integration of hormone structure and function
• Tissue specific metabolism
• Hormonal regulation of fuel metabolism
• Obesity and regulation of body mass

Plasma Membrane (BIO, BCM)

• General function in cell containment
• Composition of membranes
  • Lipid components (BIO, BCM, ORG)
    • Phospholipids (and phosphatids)
    • Steroids
    • Waxes
  • Protein components
  • Fluid mosaic model
• Membrane dynamics
• Solute transport across membranes
  • Thermodynamic considerations
  • Osmosis
    • Colligative properties; osmotic pressure (CHM)
  • Passive transport
  • Active transport
    • Sodium/potassium pump
• Membrane channels
• Membrane potential
• Membrane receptors
• Exocytosis and endocytosis
• Intercellular junctions (BIO)
  • Gap junctions
  • Tight junctions
  • Desmosomes

Biosignaling (BCM)

• Oncogenes, apoptosis

Biosignaling (BCM)

• Gated ion channels
  • Voltage gated
  • Ligand gated
• Receptor enzymes
• G protein-coupled receptors

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description; structure
  • Steroids
  • Terpenes and terpenoids

Gas Phase (CHM, PHY)

• Absolute temperature, (K) Kelvin Scale
• Pressure, simple mercury barometer
• Molar volume at 0 °C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol
• Ideal gas
  • Definition
  • Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
  • Boyle's Law: PV = constant
  • Charles' Law: V/T = constant
  • Avogadro's Law: V/n = constant
• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
  • Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressure (PHY)
  • Boltzmann's Constant (PHY)
• Deviation of real gas behavior from Ideal Gas Law
  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative (Van der Waals' Equation)
• Partial pressure, mole fraction
• Dalton's Law relating partial pressure to composition

Electrochemistry (CHM)

• Electrolytic cell
  • Electrolysis
  • Anode, cathode
  • Electrolyte
  • Faraday's Law relating amount of elements deposited (or gas liberated) at an electrode to current
  • Electron flow; oxidation, and reduction at the electrodes Galvanic or Voltaic cells
  • Half-reactions
  • Reduction potentials; cell potential
  • Direction of electron flow
• Concentration cell
• Batteries
  • Electromotive force, Voltage
  • Lead-storage batteries
  • Nickel-cadmium batteries

Atomic Nucleus (PHY, CHM)

• Atomic number, atomic weight
• Neutrons, protons, isotopes
• Nuclear forces, binding energy
• Radioactive decay
  • α, β, γ decay
  • Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots
• Mass spectrometer

Electronic Structure (PHY, CHM)

• Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principal quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital (GC)
• Ground state, excited states
• Absorption and emission line spectra
• Use of Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Paramagnetism and diamagnetism
• Conventional notation for electronic structure (CHM)
• Bohr atom
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Effective nuclear charge (CHM)
• Photoelectric effect

The Periodic Table - Classification of Elements into Groups by Electronic Structure (CHM)

• Alkali metals
• Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics
• Halogens: their chemical characteristics
• Noble gases: their physical and chemical characteristics
• Transition metals
• Representative elements
• Metals and non-metals
• Oxygen group

The Periodic Table - Variations of Chemical Properties with Group and Row (CHM)

• Valence electrons
• First and second ionization energy
  • Definition
  • Prediction from electronic structure for elements in different groups or rows Electron affinity
  • Definition
  • Variation with group and row
• Electronegativity
  • Definition
  • Comparative values for some representative elements and important groups
• Electron shells and the sizes of atoms
• Electron shells and the sizes of ions

Stoichiometry (CHM)

• Molecular weight
• Empirical versus molecular formula
• Metric units commonly used in the context of chemistry
• Description of composition by percent mass
• Mole concept, Avogadro's number N_A
• Definition of density
• Oxidation number
  • Common oxidizing and reducing agents
  • Disproportionation reactions
• Description of reactions by chemical equations
  • Conventions for writing chemical equations
  • Balancing equations, including redox equations
  • Limiting reactants
  • Theoretical yields

Acid/Base Equilibria (CHM, BCM)

• Brønsted–Lowry definition of acid, base
• Ionization of water
  • Kw, its approximate value (K_w = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C, 1 atm)
  • Definition of pH: pH of pure water
• Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH₄⁺ and NH₃)
• Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
• Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
  • Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
  • Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
  • Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
• Equilibrium constants K_a and K_b: pK_a, pK_b
• Buffers
  • Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
  • Influence on titration curves

Ions in Solutions (CHM, BCM)

• Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH₄⁺ ammonium, PO₄³⁻ phosphate, SO₄²⁻ sulfate)
• Hydration, the hydronium ion

Solubility (CHM)

• Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
• Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression K_sp
• Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
  • Complex ion formation
  • Complex ions and solubility
  • Solubility and pH

Titration (CHM)

• Indicators
• Neutralization
• Interpretation of the titration curves
• Redox titration

Covalent Bond (CHM)

• Lewis Electron Dot formulas
  • Resonance structures
  • Formal charge
  • Lewis acids and bases
• Partial ionic character
  • Role of electronegativity in determining charge distribution
  • Dipole Moment
  • and π bonds
  • Hybrid orbitals: sp³, sp², sp and respective geometries
  • Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of molecules (e.g., NH₃, H₂O, CO₂)
  • Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Cl
  • Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules
• Multiple bonding
  • o Effect on bond length and bond energies
  • o Rigidity in molecular structure
• Stereochemistry of covalently bonded molecules (ORG)
  • Isomers
    • Structural isomers
    • Stereoisomers (e.g., diastereomers, enantiomers, cis/trans isomers)
    • Conformational isomers
  • Polarization of light, specific rotation
  • Absolute and relative configuration
    • Conventions for writing R and S forms
    • Conventions for writing E and Z forms

Liquid Phase - Intermolecular Forces (CHM)

• Hydrogen bonding
• Dipole Interactions
• Van der Waals' Forces (London dispersion forces)

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions – Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics (CHM, PHY)

• Thermodynamic system – state function
• Zeroth Law – concept of temperature
• First Law - conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes
• PV diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve (PHY)
• Second Law – concept of entropy
  • Entropy as a measure of "disorder"
  • Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states
• Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat
• Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation (PHY)
• Endothermic/exothermic reactions (CHM)
  • Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation
  • Hess' Law of Heat Summation
• Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (CHM)
• Free energy: G (CHM)
• Spontaneous reactions and ΔG° (CHM)
• Coefficient of expansion (PHY)
• Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization
• Phase diagram: pressure and temperature

Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions - Kinetics and Equilibrium (CHM)

• Reaction rate
• Dependence of reaction rate on concentration of reactants
  • Rate law, rate constant
  • Reaction order
• Rate-determining step
• Dependence of reaction rate upon temperature
  • Activation energy
    • Activated complex or transition state
    • Interpretation of energy profiles showing energies of reactants, products, activation energy, and ΔH for the reaction
  • Use of the Arrhenius Equation
• Kinetic control versus thermodynamic control of a reaction
• Catalysts
• Equilibrium in reversible chemical reactions
  • Law of Mass Action
  • Equilibrium Constant
  • Application of Le Châtelier's Principle
• Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°

Protein Structure (BIO, BCM, CHM)

• Structure
  • 1° structure of proteins
  • 2° structure of proteins
  • 3° structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
  • 4° structure of proteins (BIO, BCM)
• Conformational stability
  • Denaturing and folding
  • Hydrophobic interactions
  • Solvation layer (entropy) (BCM)
• Separation techniques
  • Isoelectric point
  • Electrophoresis

Principles of Bioenergetics (BCM, CHM)

• Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
  • Free energy/Keq
    • Equilibrium constant
    • Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG°
  • Concentration
    • Le Châtelier's Principle
  • Endothermic/exothermic reactions
  • Free energy: G
  • Spontaneous reactions and ΔG°
• Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP
  • ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0
  • ATP group transfers
• Biological oxidation-reduction
  • Half-reactions
  • Soluble electron carriers
  • Flavoproteins

Electrochemistry (CHM)

• Concentration cell: direction of electron flow, Nernst equation

Molecular Structure and Absorption Spectra (ORG)

• Infrared region
  • Intramolecular vibrations and rotations
  • Recognizing common characteristic group absorptions, fingerprint region
• Visible region (CHM)
  • Absorption in visible region gives complementary color (e.g., carotene)
  • Effect of structural changes on absorption (e.g., indicators)
• Ultraviolet region
  • π-Electron and non-bonding electron transitions
  • Conjugated systems
• NMR spectroscopy
  • Protons in a magnetic field; equivalent protons
  • Spin-spin splitting

Separations and Purifications (ORG, BCM)

• Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents
• Distillation
• Chromatography
  • Basic principles involved in separation process
    • Column chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography
    • High pressure liquid chromatography
  • Paper chromatography
  • Thin-layer chromatography
• Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BCM)
  • Electrophoresis
  • Quantitative analysis
  • Chromatography
    • Size-exclusion
    • Ion-exchange
    • Affinity
• Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (ORG)

Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (ORG, BCM)

• Amino acids: description
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Dipolar ions
  • Classification
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
  • Synthesis of α-amino acids (ORG)
    • Strecker Synthesis
    • Gabriel Synthesis
• Peptides and proteins: reactions
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis (BCM)
• General Principles
  • Primary structure of proteins
  • Secondary structure of proteins
  • Tertiary structure of proteins
  • Isoelectric point

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description, Types
  • Storage
    • Triacyl glycerols
    • Free fatty acids: saponification
  • Structural
    • Phospholipids and phosphatids
    • Sphingolipids (BCM)
    • Waxes
  • Signals/cofactors
    • Fat-soluble vitamins
    • Steroids
    • Prostaglandins (BCM)

Aldehydes and Ketones (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties
• Important reactions
  • Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond
    • Acetal, hemiacetal
    • Imine, enamine
    • Hydride reagents
    • Cyanohydrin
  • Oxidation of aldehydes
  • Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry
    • Keto-enol tautomerism (α-racemization)
    • Aldol condensation, retro-aldol
    • Kinetic versus thermodynamic enolate
• General principles
  • Effect of substituents on reactivity of C=O; steric hindrance
  • Acidity of α-H; carbanions

Alcohols (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties (acidity, hydrogen bonding)
• Important reactions
  • Oxidation
  • Substitution reactions: S_N1 or S_N2
  • Protection of alcohols
  • Preparation of mesylates and tosylates

Carboxylic Acids (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties
• Important reactions
  • Carboxyl group reactions
    • Amides (and lactam), esters (and lactone), anhydride formation
    • Reduction
    • Decarboxylation
  • Reactions at 2-position, substitution

Acid Derivatives (Anhydrides, Amides, Esters) (ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature
  • Physical properties
• Important reactions
  • Nucleophilic substitution
  • Transesterification
  • Hydrolysis of amides
• General principles
  • Relative reactivity of acid derivatives
  • Steric effects
  • Electronic effects
  • Strain (e.g., β-lactams)

Phenols (ORG, BCM)

• Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2^e− redox centers

Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (ORG, BCM)

• Biological aromatic heterocycles

Amino Acids (BCM, ORG)

• Description:
  • Absolute configuration at the α position
  • Amino acids as dipolar ions
  • Classifications
    • Acidic or basic
    • Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
• Reactions:
  • Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
  • Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
  • Hydrolysis

Carbohydrates (BCM, ORG)

• Description
  • Nomenclature and classification, common names
  • Absolute configuration
  • Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
  • Epimers and anomers
• Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides

Lipids (BCM, ORG)

• Description; structure
  • Steroids
  • Terpenes and terpenoids